Viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective Essays

Viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective Essays Viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective Paper Viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective Paper What are the advantages and disadvantages of sing behavior through a lifespan position for societal work pattern? This assignment will look at the advantages and disadvantages a societal worker sing behaviors through a lifespan position may meet. It will look at developmental theories that relate to the chosen service user group, and how, as a societal worker, this cognition would increase apprehension of the service user and how this in bend may impact the function of a societal worker in pattern. The service users age group being explored in this assignment will be older grownups aged from 65+ . Lifespan development starts from construct and coatings with the decease of each person. During each person s lifetime there are changeless alterations and developments taking topographic point, the bulk of phases and life alterations each person passes through are due to their common psychological and biological heritage as worlds and are shared by all people. Culture and societal category, and the person s environment are all factors that help determine the class of development ( Niven. N.1989 ) . There are five chief theoretical attacks for lifetime development ; these are biological, cognitive, humanist, behaviorist and the psychodynamic attack. Aging in late life is shaped by the accretion of life events and the propinquity of decease ; a misperception about ripening is that disablement and hapless wellness in later grownup life are inevitable ( Davies, M, 2002 ) .A A During each person s lifetime, they will see a series of crises and life passages. Through out the lifetime there are certain periods or phases where each person will confront a passage from one province to another. These periods have been referred to as life crises by some psychologists, each crisis necessitating to be resolved in order to come on to the following phase. Each single returns through the phases of development, and the manner in which they deal with each crisis in each phase of development forms their personality ( Niven, N, 1989 ) .A Other attacks agree that there are certain phases in development that have significance for each person, but they province that there are besides other events that can besides determine development these being exp erienced by some persons but non all. Retirement is merely one of a figure of alterations that need to be adjusted to in late maturity, among the others are worsening wellness and physical strength along with physical and centripetal damage which can ensue in increased dependence on others in late maturity ( Beckett.C.2002 ) . Several physical and cognitive alterations besides take topographic point in old age ( Bee A ; Mitchell, 1984 ) cited in ( Sugarman. L. 1990. Pg 53 ) . The bodily alterations that are associated with ageing are summarized in five words- slower, weaker, lesser, fewer and smaller. As ageing occurs experience gained throughout the lifetime helps the person and they learn to counterbalance for the many gradual diminutions that accompany old age. ( Corse 1975 ) cited in ( Sugarman. L. 1990. Pg 53 ) concludes that experience, intelligence, and instruction can assist keep normal perceptual and centripetal operation. Many alterations in visual aspect return topographic point in old age. Outward appearances get down to demo ripening, older people s tegument begins to lose snap, which causes lines and furrows to look, hair loss and gray hair may be one of the first marks of ageing, and hearing and oculus sight now begin to deteriorate ( Windmill.V.1987 ) .A Internally the kidneys, lungs, bosom and enteric piece of land all begin to work less and there may be impairment of musculuss which can literally do old people to shrivel. The decrease of Ca in the castanetss makes the old individual more prone to breaks and crispness of the castanetss is besides a job in the older population.A Arthritis is one of the more serious wellness jobs impacting older people and for most people these alterations may be gradual ( Windmill.V.1987 ) . A societal worker demands basic penetration of childhood surveies, as without them it would be hard to measure grownups on maturity theories entirely. Freud is credited with get downing the psychoanalytic attack. The cardinal premise of this attack is that behavior is governed by the unconscious every bit good as the witting procedures ; some are present at birth while others develop over clip. ( Beckett.C.2002 ) The 2nd premise of the psychoanalytic theory is that our personalities have a construction that develops over clip. Freud proposed three parts of the personality- the Idaho, the self-importance, and the superego. Freud s cardinal premises were that grownup s personalities depend on childhood experiences ; he assumed kids go through five psychosexual phases. The first being the unwritten phase, the 2nd the anal phase, and the staying phases being the phallic phase, the latency period and the venereal stage.A ( Beckett.C.2002 ) .A When looking at human lifetime development, Erik Erikson s theories can be of usage to a societal worker. Erikson was a pupil of Freud ; nevertheless he had some really different thoughts. He thought development was psychosocial and due partially to ripening and partially due to society. Erikson besides thought that personality development continued across the lifetime, unlike Freud, who suggest personality development finished in adolescence. Erikson ( 1980 ) cited in ( Niven, N, 1989, pg 155 ) proposed eight phases of development which he called developmental crises , these being viewed more as a period of trouble or quandary. They are times when persons face a turning point or passage in their lives frequently affecting a grade of emphasis associated with holding to decide each quandary. Not merely do these passages of alteration affect the person s behavior they besides affect their household and friends.A Erikson s phases are phrased in footings of an resistance between two fea tures and each person must successfully negociate the undertaking or phase in order to be able to travel on to the following 1. Eriksson s 8th phase ( late maturity ) is integrity vs desperation ; this suggests if the person has managed to negociate the old phases, so the person will hold developed a sense of unity. This refers to the credence of the restrictions of life, with the sense of being a portion of a larger whole which includes old coevalss. It enables the person to near decease without fright, if one looks back on 1 s life and sees it as unsatisfactory, desperation occurs and a feeling of what if prevails. Erikson suggests that at each passage persons may necessitate to revisit unsolved issues from old stages.A A The chief strength of Erikson s theory is that it offers a model for explicating alterations in childhood and maturity. His work has been criticised in that it represents a set of premises alternatively of precise descriptions of relationships and causes. A disa dvantage here is the deficiency of empirical evidence- this is besides another unfavorable judgment of Erikson s work.A The advantages for a societal worker utilizing Erikson s theory is that it provides markers for those events in a service user s life that may be turn outing hard and in utilizing this attack, societal workers can foreground the jobs that are likely to impact people during specific phases of their life. ( Niven. N. 1989 ) . An country of life class development most associated with older grownups relates to stop of life issues. In the ulterior phases of maturity the terminal of life is expected. Death is the terminal of biological and physical operation of the organic structure. Factors to be taken in to account for societal workers working with service users who have suffered a loss, are gender and cultural differences, as these can impact a societal worker s apprehension of what may number as a loss and what in bend can be done about it ( Currer. C 2007 ) .A Each person s reaction to heartache and emotional injury is every bit alone as a fingerprint.A A When believing about mourning and loss it is utile to look at attachment theory, Bowlby s ( 1946 ) cited in ( Davies, M, 2002 ) , major work was Attachment and Loss ; unhappily it is the instance for many persons in subsequently maturity that there is a monetary value to pay for the benefits of organizing fond regards. Harmonizing to Bowlby s fond regar d theory grownups, who as kids had secure fond regards with their carers, are able to organize satisfactory relationships in big life and this will assist them to get by with the hurting of mourning in ulterior life. Bowlby s purpose of this originally was to explicate the effects for personality development and how terrible break of fond regards between baby and female parent could hold negative effects on development. ( Butterworth. H. A ; Harris. M. 2002 ) .A Adults who did non hold secure fond regards as kids can be identified, harmonizing to Howe ( 1995 ) cited in ( Davies, M, 2002 ) , who suggests that avoidant persons are the 1s who show self trust. They may expose delayed reactions to grief, they attempt to be emotionally self reliant and are wary of organizing relationships. This means the loss of person who is near to them normally triggers defense mechanism mechanisms- they may non shout or look to be upset but are vulnerable to future losingss. Exaggerated reactions to grief can be accounted for when the person has non adjusted or come to footings with earlier loss of an of import fond regard relationship.A On the other manus ambivalently attached persons may see self-blame and guilt when their spouse dies. Where there has been an insecure fond regard in childhood ( an fond regard that does non run into the kid s needs- the demand for safety and security etc ) Bowlby ( 1998 ) cited in ( Beckett. C. 2006 ) suggests the dying kid will seek to protect themselves against dying state of affairss. The kid uses a assortment of psychological tactics and this consequences in what Bowlby called a faulty working theoretical account of themselves and of other relationships. To keep this theoretical account the kid will utilize defensive exclusion to avoid feelings that may endanger the kid s already unstable stableness. Attachment theory is backed up by empirical grounds. This is good as it can assist societal workers identify causes from an person s yesterye ar and this helps to supply accounts for present behaviors and their ability to cover with alteration ( Beckett. C.2006 ) . Each person s reaction to heartache and emotional injury are every bit alone as a fingerprint. When looking at loss it is of import to retrieve that older people may lose friends, abilities, connexions and many other things that are of import to them. The significance of heartache and loss in old age is dismissed by the ageist stereotype that older people will be used to loss because they are at an age where they have experienced tonss of it. However the world is that loss can be cumulative at this age and this consequences in negative experiences for those whose loss or heartache is non recognized or addressed ( Thompson.N. et Al. 2008 ) . It is of import that societal workers take a holistic attack to understanding life class development in older grownups, as life class is cardinal to any apprehension of ageing.A A societal worker should be cognizant that an person s life experiences and life class developments are affected by several factors- these include economic and societal facets, historical, cultural, psychological, and cognitive and physiological influences. ( Crawford, K, A ; Walker, J, 2007 ) . All passages expected or unexpected, sudden and unplanned, present chances and challenges for the person s development and growth.A Each person will hold different experiences of passages even when the life event is common to many in society, each individual will react and accommodate to that alteration in a alone manner. ( Crawford, K, A ; Walker, J, 2007 ) . There are disadvantages for societal workers when sing persons through a lifespan position as most of the theories being used are Euro centric ( European surveies ) and can non be applied to all civilizations. As a societal worker attention must be taken when utilizing any of the behavioral attacks as they raise the issues refering the usage of power and subjugation. The societal worker should non concentrate excessively much on narrow behavioral issues at the disbursal of the larger image ( Beckett.C.2006 ) . It is in a societal worker s involvement non to suppress or know apart service users but to handle them with unconditioned positive respect, non burying to handle each service user as an person with their ain sentiments and values. The theories used do hold restrictions as non all persons or civilizations fit the suggested norms and each individual develops at a different rate. As a societal worker cognizing about the different point of views from theoreticians and their suggested point of views may enable a better apprehension of what jobs a service user may be experiencing.A When working with service users from any age scope, it is of import that the societal worker does non act upon these passages with their ain life experiences. Mentions Beckett.C. ( 2006 ) .Essential Theory for Social Work Practice.Sage Publications Ltd. London. Beckett.C. ( 2002 ) .Human Growth A ; Development.Sage Publications Ltd. London. Bee.H. A ; Boyd. H. ( 2003 ) 3rd Ed.Lifespan development.Pearson Education Inc. Boston. USA Butterworth. G. and Harris. M. ( 2002 ) . Developmental Psychology. A Students Handbook. Psychology Press Ltd. Hove. East Sussex. Crawford. K. A ; Walker. J. ( 2007 ) 2nd Ed,Social Work and Human Development.Learning Matters Ltd. Exeter. Currer. C. ( 2007 ) .Loss and Social Work.Learning Matters Ltd. Exeter. Davies. M. ( 2002 ) 2nd Ed.The Blackwell Companion to Social Work.Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Oxford. Niven. N. ( 1989 )Health Psychology. An Introduction for Nurses A ; other Health Care Professionals.Churchill Livingstone. Sugarman. L. ( 1990 ) .Lifespan development. Concepts, Theories and Interventions.Routledge. London. Thompson.N. A ; Thompson. S. ( 2008 )The Social work Companion.Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. Windmill.V. ( 1987 ) .Human Growth A ; Development.Hodder and Stoughton Ltd.Kent.

How US Public Land Is Surveyed and Distributed

How US Public Land Is Surveyed and Distributed Public land in the United States is land that was originally transferred directly from the federal government to individuals, to be distinguished from land that was originally granted or sold to individuals by the British Crown. Public lands (public domain), consisting of all land outside the original 13 colonies and the five states later formed from them (and later West Virginia and Hawaii), first came under government control following the Revolutionary War with the enactment of the Northwest Ordinance of 1785 and 1787. As the United States grew, additional land was added to the public domain through the taking of Indian land, by treaty, and by purchase from other governments. Public Land States The thirty states formed from the public domain, known as public land states, are: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The original thirteen colonies, plus Kentucky, Maine, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, and later West Virginia and Hawaii, form what is known as the state land states. Rectangular Survey System of Public Lands One of the most significant differences between land in the public land states and state land states is that public land was surveyed prior to being made available for purchase or homesteading, using the rectangular-survey system, otherwise known as the township-range system. When a survey was done on new public land, two lines were run at right angles to each other through the territory - a base line running east and west and a meridian line running north and south. The land was then divided into sections from the point of this intersection as follows: Township and Range - Townships, a major subdivision of public lands under the rectangular survey system, measure approximately six miles on a side (thirty-six square miles). Townships are then numbered from the base line north and south and then from the meridian line east and west. The east/west identification is known as the Range. A Township is identified by this relationship to a base line and a principal meridian.Example: Township 3 North, Range 9 West, 5th Principal Meridian identifies a specific township that is 3 tiers north from the baseline and 9 tiers west (Range) of the 5th Principal Meridian.Section Number - Townships were then further broken down into thirty-six sections of 640 acres each (one square mile) called sections, which were numbered with reference to the baseline and meridian line.Aliquot Parts - Sections were then further subdivided into smaller pieces, such as halves and quarters, while still (generally) keeping the land in a square. Aliquot Parts were used to representing the exact subdivision of each such section of land. Halves of a Section (or subdivision thereof) are represented as N, S, E, and W (such as the north half of section 5). Quarters of a Section (or subdivision thereof) are represented as NW, SW, NE, and SE (such as the northwest quarter of section 5). Sometimes, several Aliquot Parts are required to describe a parcel of land accurately.Example: ESW denotes the east half of the southwest quarter of a section, containing 80 acres. What a Township Is In general: A township contains 23,040 acresA section contains 640 acres,A half section contains 320 acres,A quarter section contains 160 acres,A half of a quarter contains 80 acres,A quarter of a quarter contains 40 acres, etc. A legal land description for the public land states might, for instance, be written as: the west half of the northwest quarter, section 8, township 38, range 24, containing 80 acres, usually abbreviated as W ½ of NW ¼ 8T38R24, containing 80 acres. Public lands were distributed to individuals, governments, and companies in some ways, including: Cash Entry An entry that covered public lands for which the individual paid cash or its equivalent. Credit Sales These land patents were issued to anyone who either paid by cash at the time of the sale and received a discount or paid by credit in installments over four years. If full payment was not received within the four-year period, title to the land would revert to the Federal Government. Because of the economic hardship, Congress quickly abandoned the credit system and through the Act of April 24, 1820, required full payment for land to be made at the time of purchase. Private Land and Preemption Claims A claim based on the assertion that the claimant (or his predecessors in interest) derived his right while the land was under the dominion of a foreign government. Pre-emption was a tactful way of saying squatter. In other words, the settler was physically on the property before the GLO officially sold or even surveyed the tract, and he was thus given a pre-emptive right to acquire the land from the United States. Donation Lands To attract settlers to the remote territories of Florida, New Mexico, Oregon, and Washington, the federal government offered donation land grants to individuals who would agree to settle there and meet a residency requirement. Donation land claims were unique in that acreage granted to married couples was divided evenly. Half of the acreage was placed in the husbands name while the other half was placed in the wifes name. Records include plats, indexes, and survey notes. Donation lands were a precursor to homesteading. Homesteads Under the Homestead Act of 1862, settlers were given 160 acres of land in the public domain if they built a home on the land, resided there for five years, and cultivated the land. This land did not cost anything per acre, but the settler did pay a filing fee. A complete homestead entry file includes such documents as the homestead application, homestead proof, and final certificate authorizing the claimant to obtain a land patent. Military Warrants From 1788 to 1855 the United States granted military bounty land warrants as a reward for military service. These land warrants were issued in various denominations and based upon the rank and length of service. Railroad To aid in the construction of certain railroads, a congressional act of September 20, 1850, granted to the State alternate sections of public land on either side of the rail lines and branches. State Selection Each new State admitted to the Union was granted 500,000 acres of public land for internal improvements for the common good. Established under the Act of September 4, 1841. Mineral Certificates The General Mining Law of 1872 defined mineral lands as a parcel of land containing valuable minerals in its soil and rocks. There were three kinds of mining claims: Lode Claims for gold, silver, or other precious metals occurring in veinsPlacer Claims for minerals not found in veinsMill Site Claims for up to five acres of public land claimed for processing minerals. Created and maintained by the US Federal Government, records of first transfer of public domain lands are available in multiple locations, including the National Archives and Record Administration (NARA), Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and some State Land Offices. Land records related to subsequent transfers of such land between parties other than the Federal Government are found at the local level, usually a county. The types of land records created by the Federal Government include survey plats and field notes, tract books with records of each land transfer, land-entry case files with supporting documents for each land claim, and copies of the original land patents. Survey Notes and Field Plats Dating back to the 18th century, government surveys were begun in Ohio and progressed westward as more territory was opened for settlement. Once the public domain was surveyed, the government could begin to transfer title of land parcels to private citizens, companies, and local governments. Survey plats are drawings of boundaries, prepared by draftsmen, based on data in the sketches and field notes. Survey field notes are records that describe the survey performed and are completed by the surveyor. The field notes may contain descriptions of land formations, climate, soil, plant and animal life. Land Entry Case Files Before the homesteaders, soldiers, and other entrymen received their patents, and some government paperwork had to be done. Those purchasing land from the United States had to be given receipts for payments, while those obtaining land through military bounty land warrants, preemption entries, or the Homestead Act of 1862, had to file applications, give proof about military service, residence on and improvements to the land, or evidence of citizenship. The paperwork generated by those bureaucratic activities, compiled into land entry case files, is held by the National Archives and Records Administration.   Tract Books The best place to being your search when youre looking for a complete land description, tract books for the Eastern States are in the custody of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). For the Western States, they are held by NARA.  Tract books are ledgers used by the U.S. federal government from 1800 until the 1950s to record land entries and other actions related to the disposition of  public domain land. They can serve as a useful resource for family historians who want to locate the property of ancestors and their neighbors who lived in the 30 public land states. Especially valuable, tract books serve not only as an index to patented land but also to land transactions that were never completed but may still contain useful information for researchers.